The olfactory system represents one of the oldest sensory modalities in the phylogenetic history of mammals. Olfaction is less developed in humans than in other mammals such as rodents. As a chemical sensor, the olfactory system detects food and influences social and sexual behavior. The specialized olfactory epithelial cells characterize the only group of neurons capable of regeneration. Activation occurs when odiferous molecules come in contact with specialized processes known as the olfactory vesicles. Within the nasal cavity, the turbinates or nasal conchae serve to direct the inspired air toward the olfactory epithelium in the upper posterior region. This area (only a few centimeters wide) contains more than 100 million olfactory receptor cells. These specialized epithelial cells give rise to the olfactory vesicles containing kinocilia, which serve as sites of stimulus transduction.
There are three specialized neural systems are present within the nasal cavities in humans: 1) the main olfactory system (cranial nerve 1), 2) trigeminal somatosensory system (cranial nerve V), 3) the nervus terminalis (cranial nerve 0). CN I mediates odor sensation. It is responsible for determining flavors. CN V mediates somatosensory sensations, including burning, cooling, irritation, and tickling. CN 0 is a ganglionated neural plexus. It spans much of the nasal mucosa before coursing through the cribriform plate to enter the forebrain medial to the olfactory tract. The exact function of the nervus terminalis is unknown in humans.
The olfactory neuroepithelium is a pseudostratified columnar epithelium. The specialized olfactory epithelial cells are the only group of neurons capable of regeneration. The olfactory epithelium is situated in the superior aspect of each nostril, including cribriform plate, superior turbinate, superior septum, and sections of the middle turbinate. It harbors sensory receptors of the main olfactory system and some CN V free nerve endings. The olfactory epithelium loses its general homogeneity postnatally, and as early as the first few weeks of life metaplastic islands of respiratory-like epithelium appear. The metaplasia increases in extent throughout life. It is presumed that this process is the result of insults from the environment, such as viruses, bacteria, and toxins.
There are 6 distinct cells types in the olfactory neuroepithelium: 1) bipolar sensory receptor neurons, 2) microvillar cells, 3) supporting cells, 4) globose basal cells, 5) horizontal basal cells, 6) cells lining the Bowman's glands. There are approximately 6,000,000 bipolar neurons in the adult olfactory neuroepithelium. They are thin dendritic cells with rods containing cilia at one end and long central processes at the other end forming olfactory fila. The olfactory receptors are located on the ciliated dendritic ends. The unmyelinated axons coalesce into 40 bundles, termed olfactory fila, which are ensheathed by Schwann-like cells. The fila transverses the cribriform plate to enter the anterior cranial fossa and constitute CN I. Microvillar cells are near the surface of the neuroepithelium, but the exact functions of these cells are unknown. Supporting cells are also at the surface of the epithelium. They join tightly with neurons and microvillar cells. They also project microvilli into the mucus. Their functions include insulating receptor cells from one another, regulating the composition of the mucus, deactivating odorants, and protecting the epithelium from foreign agents. The basal cells are located near the basement membrane, and are the progenitor cells from which the other cell types arise. The Bowman's glands are a major source of mucus within the region of the olfactory epithelium.
The odorant receptors are located on the cilia of the receptor cells. Each receptor cell expresses a single odorant receptor gene. There are approximately 1,000 classes of receptors at present. The olfactory receptors are linked to the stimulatory guanine nucleotide binding protein Golf. When stimulated, it can activate adenylate cyclase to produce the second messenger cAMP, and subsequent events lead to depolarization of the cell membrane and signal propagation. Although each receptor cell only expresses one type of receptor, each cell is electrophysiologically responsive to a wide but circumscribed range of stimuli. This implies that a single receptor accepts a range of molecular entities.
The olfactory bulb is located on top of the cribriform plate at the base of the frontal lobe in the anterior cranial fossa. It receives thousands of primary axons from olfactory receptor neurons. Within the olfactory bulb, these axons synapse with a much smaller number of second order neurons which form the olfactory tract and project to olfactory cortex. The olfactory cortex includes the frontal and temporal lobes, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
Although mammalian ORs were identified over 10 years ago, little is known about the selectivity of the different ORs for chemical stimuli, mainly because it has been difficult to express ORs on the cell surface of heterologous cells and assay their ligand-binding specificity (see, e.g., Mombaerts, P. (2004) Nat Rev Neurosci 5, 263-278; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety). The reason is that OR proteins are retained in the ER and subsequently degraded in the proteosome (see, e.g., Lu, M., et al., (2003) Traffic 4, 416-433; McClintock, T. S., (1997) Brain Res Mol Brain Res 48, 270-278; each herein incorporated by reference in their entireties). Despite these difficulties, extensive efforts have matched about 20 ORs with cognate ligands with various degrees of certainty (see, e.g., Bozza, T., et al., (2002) J Neurosci 22, 3033-3043; Gaillard, I., et al., (2002) Eur J Neurosci 15, 409-418; Hatt, H., et al., (1999) Cell Mol Biol 45, 285-291; Kajiya, K., et al., (2001) J Neurosci 21, 6018-6025; Krautwurst, D., et al., (1998) Cell 95, 917-926; Malnic, B., et al., (1999) Cell 96, 713-723; Raming, K., et al., (1993) Nature 361, 353-356; Spehr, M., et al., (2003) Science 299, 2054-2058; Touhara, K., et al., (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96, 4040-4045; Zhao, H., et al., (1998) Science 279, 237-242; each herein incorporated by reference in their entirety). Adding the 20 N-terminal amino acids of rhodopsin (e.g., Rho-tag) or a foreign signal peptide to the N-terminus facilitates surface expression of some ORs in heterologous cells (see, e.g., Hatt, H., et al., (1999) Cell Mol Biol 45, 285-291; Krautwurst, D., et al., (1998) Cell 95, 917-926; each herein incorporated in their entirety). However, for most ORs, modifications do not reliably promote cell-surface expression. For example, ODR-4, which is required for proper localization of chemosensory receptors in C. elegans, has a small effect on facilitating cell-surface expression of one rat OR, but not another OR (see, e.g., Gimelbrant, A. A., et al., (2001) J Biol Chem 276, 7285-7290; herein incorporated by reference). These findings indicate that olfactory neurons have a selective molecular machinery that promotes proper targeting of OR proteins to the cell surface, but no components of this machinery have been identified (see, e.g., Gimelbrant, A. A., et al., (2001) J Biol Chem 276, 7285-7290; McClintock, T. S., and Sammeta, N. (2003) Neuroreport 14, 1547-1552; each herein incorporated by reference in their entirety).
What is needed is a better understanding of olfactory sensation. What is further needed is a better understanding of odorant receptor function.